education as schooling ( ^ ) The invention and spread of writing in conjunction with other related skills such as reading and mathematics, favored the establishment of schools, first in Egypt and Babylonia and later in Greece.
In Greece, Socrates was famous exponent of a way to educate, called Socratic, in which one who is willing to learn is helped through a series of questions and answers appropriate to consciously bring to light what was believed to be already present in a latent and undeveloped in his mind and his senses. And this is what the very word "education" means from the etymological point of view, namely e-ducere (bring out) ie to stimulate and facilitate the full expression of the energies and qualities of the individual.
In contrast to this concept and educational practice, a new line of inquiry emerged in ancient Greece that would set the pattern for the majority of student teachers: the sophists. The method used by the sophists was to teach art elements tested della persuasione (dialettica) e dell'espressione (retorica) di modo che i figli dei ricchi Ateniesi potessero prevalere nelle contese oratorie contro i loro avversari politici.
Il metodo sofistico assegna una importanza enorme alla capacità di servirsi delle parole e alla loro disposizione formale, aspetti che influenzeranno la maggior parte dell'insegnamento scolastico nel corso dei secoli.
La separazione tra scuola e vita che questo modo di insegnare e di apprendere non poteva non favorire, emerse anche a Roma. Ed è proprio contro questo aspetto negativo dell'educazione Romana che si levò il famoso monito di Seneca: "non scholae sed vitae discimus" [impariamo non per la scuola ma per la vita].
Dopo la caduta dell'Impero Romano and the decline of cities, schools decreased in number and almost disappeared and returned to education to take place mainly at home and through daily activities. With the resumption of urban areas (around the year 1000) and with the development of production and commerce, reappeared teachers and educational institutions to meet the new needs of the children of aristocrats and wealthy merchants and craftsmen.
The revival and spread of schools ( ^ )
During the Middle Ages, the Church took on the task of preserving the works of Greek and Roman authors by saving the death and abandonment. The church then became more elements of society with education, practically the only ones able to read and write and possess knowledge from past ages.
For this reason it is not surprising that the Church was present with a dominant influence (if not exclusively) in the establishment and management of almost all the centers and educational activities of the time, dall'insegnamentom of children in the foundation of universities .
Being the Church universal power, researchers and students could move from one center to another (from Bologna to Paris to Oxford) free from any political barrier or cultural restrictions, using Latin as a language franca.
limits to learning were, in many cases, other, and consisted of the same that had affected the practice of the sophists: the separation between the materials and methods of teaching on the one hand and the activities and problems of people's lives by 'other. Formal aspects, learning by heart, pedantic study of Greek and Latin, they became the founding pillars of most of the medieval schools. The student was required to familiarize themselves slavishly with the texts of classical authors as if they were the heights of culture unsurpassed and unsurpassable. This view, shared by many educated people in various parts of Europe, have strongly marked by the purposes and practices of nearly all future schools, confined to the mere transmission of past cultural achievements.
Classical education based on the study of Latin was then considered essential to become a member of the highest professions such as lawyer, physician, theologian. But at the same time, given the demand of the times, began to appear professional schools, aimed at the children of the rising commercial class, in which subjects were taught more relevant to everyday life such as trade and applied mathematics, reading and writing in the vernacular .
The joint presence of different types of schools, promoted by different categories of people (rich merchants, clergy and lay lords, rulers citizens, traveling teachers, etc..) shows that when there is a need and there are no restrictions (political, technical or otherwise) on the modes of its fulfillment, which most likely will cause the offer of a series of possibilities, in this case a variety of educational experiences from a series of educational promoters.
Quest unenforceable will be even more evident in a later period, at the time of the Industrial Revolution, when the general improvement in living conditions, due to a significant increase in productivity enabled him to devote a growing share of time and energy to education formal education of children. During the first half of the century XIX, an incredible series of initiatives is the development of school education in England was becoming the most advanced country in Europe. Catholic and Protestant schools were added to the Sunday school (Sunday schools) for workers employed during the week, night school for adults, schools, charities (charity dame schools or schools) for the poor in the most deprived districts of cities, schools village (village schools) supported by voluntary contributions and from the small fees, the schools (factory schools) promoted by far-sighted entrepreneurs such as Robert Owen, schools for mechanics (mechanics Institutes) arose as a result of the commitment of George Birkbeck, companies cooperazione educative (mutual improvement societies), gli istituti di studi letterari e filosofici (literary and philosophical institutes), le scuole per l'apprendistato (training colleges) e una serie di altri centri di istruzione e di università sorti con un lascito e finanziati soprattutto attraverso donazioni volontarie, fondi personali e contributi degli utenti. Il numero delle cosiddette scuole private (e cioè, quelle che basavano le loro entrate solo su quote e contribuzioni personali) passarono in Inghilterra da 688 nel 1841 a 3754 nel 1850 (Fonte: Censimento 1851), una crescita del 545% in soli dieci anni. Uno sviluppo simile poteva attendersi in altri paesi una volta che avessero avviato il loro processo di industrializzazione e intrapreso the way of improving living conditions.
But in other parts of Europe there was already moving in a different direction, with the state assumed more and more control of education, and even England would be involved, in due course by this stream of ideas and of shares.
The birth of the state school ( ^ )
The rise in status to a position of dominance in the field of school is preceded by a long period of preparation during which the Church and education centers established that it had started to be devalued and torn; this fact was contrary to the previous period when the Church was considered an ally of the state in which they could be given tasks as specific to its educational mission.
In fact, in 1547 the viceroy of Spain had encouraged the involvement of Jesuit education and the establishment of schools inviting Ignatius of Loyola (the founder of the Society of Jesus) to send in Sicily, in the city of Messina, some belonging to his order in order to carry out charitable activities and teaching.
In 1759 the wind had changed direction completely. In that year the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal. In 1764 he was banished from France and a little later, in 1767, Spain. Schools it was based or closed or assigned to other institutions.
Since the end of the eighteenth century, many buildings and church property was confiscated in several European countries (primarily in France of the Revolution) is not only undermining the power of the Church but also, in some cases, the ability to carry out charitable activities such as' free tuition to the poor.
In 1763, Louis-René de la Caradeuc Chalotais, chief magistrate of Britain, wrote an "Essay on Education National advancing the idea of \u200b\u200ban educational system promoted by the state. He was motivated by two main objectives:
- Control access to education. The de la Chalotais was extremely worried by the fact that "never before had there been so many students ... even people who perform manual labor they want to study." "The Brothers of Christian Doctrine called The ignorant are pursuing a disastrous policy, they are teaching the people to read and writing while they should only learn to make sketches and handle the file plane and yet they refuse to submit to these jobs. "
- Check the content of education. In order to put an end to the influence of the Church, particularly that of the Jesuits, on the minds of the younger generation, the de Chalotais wanted the re-imposition of state schools as "children of the state shall be raised by members dello stato". A tal fine egli sollecitava il re a formare una commissione per lo studioa del problema dell'educazione nazionale, per definirne gli scopi e per approntarne gli strumenti necessari (ad esempio, i libri di testo).
In Prussia, che va considerata assieme alla Francia come la culla della scuola di stato, i "Regolamenti generali delle scuole" emessi nel 1763 sotto Federico II decretarono l'obbligo scolastico per tutti i ragazzi dai cinque ai tredici anni di età. Nello stesso periodo (1768), Johann Bernhard Basedow stava formulando la sua proposta di un Consiglio supremo della Pubblica Istruzione che fu poi formato (Oberschulcollegium) nel 1787 sotto Federico il Grande. Nel 1794 tutti gli istituti educativi furono posti sotto la supervisione dello stato, una decisione che venne riaffermata nel 1803 nel Codice Giuridico Prussiano in cui si dichiara espressamente che "le scuole e le università sono istituzioni dello stato."
Nel frattempo in Francia, B. G. Rolland, presidente del Parlamento di Parigi, produceva un rapporto sull'educazione nazionale (1768) in cui invocava l'intervento delo stato attraverso un sistema nazionale gerarchico, centralizzato nella capitale, che controllasse tutte le scuole locali.
Le fondamenta teoriche e pratiche della scuola di stato furono dunque poste nella seconda metà del secolo XVIII, pronte per essere utilizzate dai protagonisti della Rivoluzione Francese e dai ceti dirigenti degli altri stati europei, testimoni invidiosi e timorosi del fascino political and military successes of the French centralized state.
The consolidation of state school ( ^ )
The French Revolution, with its deification of the state presented as the protector of the people, prepared the way for despotism of Napoleon.
Fourcroy in 1802 by the Decree of the state as he left the local primary school initiative, took under his protection by imposing a secondary education curriculum controlled by the center. Napoleon was seen in the education of half to produce preparations administrators and army officers obedient to him. To that end instituted the state high school, whose distinctive feature was represented by a military-style discipline. Since 1804 the state arrogated to itself the right to appoint teachers and in 1806 the Imperial University was established (supplemented by further decrees in 1808). It was a kind of Ministry of Education in charge of controlling the entire apparatus of the school system and teaching in France.
The role of the state in education was extended after the fall of Napoleon, in 1833 when the law is forced Guizot every town in France to establish a state primary school. But it was under the minister of education Jules Ferry (during the year 1880) that education state received a boost, making the state monopoly in which the ruling elites aspired since the beginning of the century. A series of laws significantly reduced and even eliminated in some cases the presence of Catholic schools, introducing the prohibition of teaching by the clergy. The curriculum of the schools of all levels was developed centrally and fully expurgated of all references or religious theme. It was decided to fund the schools through the state tax and therefore their frequency was apparently the cost free while being paid by everyone in varying degrees, indirect and almost hidden.
In Prussia, the example of France and the increasing role that the state was assuming you like Supreme Leader of the nation in all fields, contributed to the emergence of a current of ideas (mainly represented by Hegel and Fichte) in which the mission of education is the formation of citizens loyal and devoted to the state.
Following the example of France and Prussia, many European countries took control of education, dispossessing those who had allegedly played a role of educators in the past and potential new competitors Elmina avrebberro not been able to compete in a situation in which the school status must be financed by all.
From those early beginnings in the second half of the eighteenth century, the school was spread everywhere, and took control of education in this point that education itself has come to be identified with the school and school means school is almost implicitly.
should therefore focus a bit 'deeper into the state school, presenting briefly the reasons for its introduction and offers the functions, features, characters and effects that characterize his life.
The overt reasons for the introduction of state school ( ^ )
The main reason to support the introduction of state school consisted of considerations egalitarian and humanitarian law.
The radical elements in France and England, in conjunction with philanthropists, social unrest and political reformers, they saw state intervention in education a way to improve the condition of the underprivileged and to reduce if not eliminate, the cultural disparities and social dislocation.
In other words, according to proponents of state intervention, only the state, as representative of the entire national community, could and should deal with the education of all citizens to be free from ignorance and a society free from inequality .
In fact, in many countries a large part of elite government did not share this perspective at all empowerment of individuals through the dissemination of education promoted by the state. In fact, the literacy of the masses was considered as a possible cause of rebellion and disorder. According to this view, an individual belonging to the subordinate classes who were able to read a manual worker or trained is a contradiction and a source of discontent that would threaten the established order.
For this reason we must correct, if necessary, the widespread view that the state was the real advocate of education and the initiator of mass literacy.
In fact, since the late eighteenth century the spread of literacy was already happening and despite contro l'opposizione dello stato, se si tiene conto che persino una élite di governo liberale come quella Inglese aveva introdotto tasse sulla carta per scoraggiare la diffusione della lettura e della scrittura tra i meno abbienti. Nonostante ciò, l'ampia circolazione di documenti rivoluzionari come "Rights of Man" (1791-1792) di Thomas Paine o "Enquiry concerning political justice" (1793) di Richard Godwin, rappresentavano un segno che la capacità di leggere si stava diffondendo anche senza l'intervento dello stato e nonostante gli ostacoli posti dallo stato. E non appena la tassa sulla stampa venne abolita nel 1855, diciassette nuovi giornali di provincia vennero fondati, una indicazione ulteriore della presenza consolidata di capacità Reading between the British population in general, long before any state school in England.
A further justification for state intervention in the form of compulsory education for all children up to a certain age, was based on the desire to end their exploitation by parents perverted and greedy bosses who forced them to work in mines and factories. This is, again, very commendable, but one reason is based on a generalization that is very far from the truth.
Whilst it is true that a small number of parents do not behave in a humane manner towards their offspring, most of them makes every effort to ensure their children a better future. As reported by James Mill in the Edinburgh Review of October 1813: "We happened to meet with families in which for weeks at a time, had not consumed any food that potatoes, but was set aside for each child, the sum needed sweaty to send them to school. " ["We have meet with Families in Which, for weeks together, not an article of sustenance But potatoes Had Been Used; yet Every Child for the hard-earned sum Was Provided To Send Them to School."]
And at school or attend various courses of instruction they came in increasing numbers if we refer to the situation in England. During the first half of the nineteenth century (1818-1858), when state intervention English education was virtually nil, the student population went from 675,000 to 2,500,000 individuals, with an annual increase in the number of pupils than double the increase of population (1965, EG West, Education and the State). At the same time the vast majority of workers had already literate or through a personal commitment or through the generous assistance of other people. So, the conventional portrait that shows the first state intervention in education, a scenario of widespread illiteracy and child neglect and exploitation, is in most cases or literary invention or pure propaganda necessary to justify the entry of the state in a new field of intervention (presenting providential as the provider of a service not otherwise available for everyone) and settle into a position of total supremacy.
the hidden motivations for the introduction of state school ( ^ )
The reasons advanced to justify state intervention in education are indeed very convincing and elicited the support of many people genuinely progressive and humanitarian ideas. However, even if we accept that they are valid reasons to support the promotion of education by the state (for example by funding and facilitating in many ways every di attività educativa), le stesse ragioni non portano necessariamente a diventare fautori della scuola di stato e del controllo generale dell'educazione da parte dello stato.
È quindi chiaro che, dietro uno schermo di filantropismo e di egualitarismo che ha davvero animato molti riformatori e attivisti sociali e ha giustificato l'intervento statale nell'educazione, si nascondono altri motivi sostanziali che hanno condotto all'instaurazione del più pervasivo e intrusivo tipo di intervento: scolarizzazione obbligatoria in scuole di stato.
Questo va molto al di là e in una direzione opposta a ciò che molti sostenevano. Infatti, essere in favore dell'educazione delle classi meno abbienti, in vista della loro emancipazione, non is identified with the compulsory attendance of school was, if we consider how many other ways exist to promote and access to education. Nevertheless, regardless of educational information to the contrary, in some countries since the beginning of the nineteenth century, the school has been chosen is the only way for education to the detriment of many other experiences. This choice is the result of certain events that suggested the state governments to undertake such a course of action.
At that moment in history the whole of Europe was under the influence of Napoleon in every country that was exporting the ideas of the French Revolution and the new state that arose, among the measures "revolutionary" that There had been adopted was that of a centralized educational system (1802).
The repeated victories of the French armies in various parts of Europe and especially the defeat of the Prussians at Jena in 1806 had the effect of arousing national feelings of revenge. If Napoleon's successes were due to a strong state and a centralized system of education that produced sodati obedient and efficient, that model was imitated. And so the idea is established to instill a sense of national pride and dedication to the country through a national system of education under the aegis of the state. The document that best represents this concept is the "Address to the German Nation" (1808) by Johann Fichte. The system
state of education in Prussia was already present then further refined based on more nationalist to the point that schools became one of the most effective political arsenal of the state. The success in producing loyal subjects state was such that, after the fall of Napoleon, Prussia was walked to become the new maximum power of continental Europe. This ascent will culminate in two events:
- the victory of the Prussian army in the Austrian Königgrätz (Sadowa) in 1864;
- the Prussian victory over the French army at Sedan in 1870.
In the words of the Prussian minister of war, "the true winner of the battaglia di Königgrätz era il maestro di scuola prussiano". Le stesse parole potrebbero essere ripetute e applicate con riferimento alla vittoria militare contro i Francesi.
L'esperienza Prussiano-Tedesca mostrò che "le scuole sono strumenti di politica statale, come l'esercito, la polizia e gli esattori delle imposte" (1960, Elie Kedourie, Nationalism). E praticamente tutti i governanti statali, a tempo debito, appresero la lezione.
Il primo stato ad assorbirla fu quello che era già meglio posizionato al riguardo e cioè la Francia. Dopo la sconfitta del suo esercito, nuovi uomini politici erano emersi per i quali il rinnovamento della nazione sotto uno stato forte costituiva una assoluta priorità. Tra di essi spicca the figure of Jules Ferry, as we have seen, was the architect of a public school system (see the 1882 and 1886) and rigidly controlled by the center from which any influence from outside the state (eg. the Church, the community , parents) was methodically eliminated or marginalized. This is the system that will be adopted in many countries (eg Italy) and that will survive, with some upgrades and modernizations of the facade, during almost the entire course of the twentieth century.
So, the real motive behind the intervention of the state in education is the survival and the power of its ruling classes. As pointed out by a keen observer, the educational system of nation-state "the purpose of education ... is to bend the minds of the younger generation to the will of the nation "(1960, Elie Kedourie, Nationalism), that is the will of the rulers national state. Or, to quote the words of a famous French historian (Ernest Lavisse) in early XX century "if the student does not become a citizen very conscious of his duties, and a soldier who loves his gun, the teacher will have wasted his time."
The functions of the state school ( ^ )
If not confessed goal of the state school is to train the subjects for the promotion ed espansione del potere statale all'interno e all'esterno, chiaramente le sue reali funzioni non possono di certo essere quelle di liberare l'essere umano dall'ignoranza e di emanciparlo verso l'indipendenza critica nel pensare e nell'agire. Al contrario, gli obiettivi della scuola di stato, molto evidenti e pressanti in passato ma tuttora intrinsechi al suo modo di affrontare l'educazione, possono essere riassunti come:
- Indottrinamento delle persone . Indottrinamento significa, in questo ambito, la diffusione, forzata e pianificata dall'alto, di idee intese a creare una identità (cioè uniformità) nazionale sotto l'egida dello stato. La vera missione della scuola di stato non è quella di agevolare the development of individuals with knowledge and reasoning skills to produce docile subjects but all the same state together. The implementation of territorial sovereignty by the state requires control and manipulation of mental attitudes of those living within that territory. In the words of an Italian writer and patriot, Massimo d'Azeglio, once made from Italy, it was necessary to "make Italians" thereby alluding to the formation of an Italian national identity, that is made in a national subjects. And this task could best be achieved only through the establishment and continued strengthening of a public school system aimed breeding population of a "devout the homeland and the King "(in the words of a circular from the Minister for Education Michael del1886 Coppino) or, in the case of Germany," loyal to the Kaiser, the army, the navy. "The state was finally able to replace Church in the function of shaping the minds and was replacing the old religion with the new ideology of statism.
- Homogenization of the masses. Homogenization means that all students must go through the same process of education, evenly absorbing the same notions and the same attitudes and behaviors in order to produce workers and citizens obedient to the owner subject to the laws. The process is imposed from above in a manner so uniform, in the late nineteenth century, a Minister of Education in France, seems to have boasted of being able to say which part of the state curriculum was carried out in every school in the country simply by reference to the date and time. The terms refer to swallow especially on events and achievements of earlier civilizations, arranged in a line of historical progress leading, as ultimate realization, the emergence of the nation state. The state is subtly presented as the initiator or the creator of all that, according to a vision of convenience, alleged to have been neglected or poorly implemented in the past (administration of justice, provision of social services, provision of infrastructure, etc. ..) In addition, each national school system seems to have the congenital tendency to portray his country as a beacon of civilization and to minimize the accomplishments and successes of the populations of other countries may give, in some cases, to practices of exploitation and robbery in their country is magically immune. It's no wonder that this kind of mass manipulation has paved the way for mass slaughter where national identities to create art clashed in a struggle for supremacy.
Homogenization is only part of the function of the school and is directed primarily to classes at the base of the social pyramid. When students from these classes have absorbed the nozioni e i comportamenti di base, la loro vita scolare cessa mentre i figli delle classi dirigenti continuano i loro studi nei Licei (un'altra invenzione di Napoleone) e all'Università (o attualmenti in corsi post-laurea).
- Differenziazione delle classi . Differenziazione significa che la scuola è organizzata in gradi e ordini che riflettono la divisione della società in classi. La divisione principale è quella tra coloro che sono assegnati a svolgere lavori manuali (esecuzione) e coloro che sono destinati alle attività intellettuali (direzione). La differenziazione inizia ai primi livelli scolari quando i figli dell'élite dirigente e delle famiglie benestanti frequentano scuole migliori (talvolta State schools in selected areas), schools abroad or even Catholic schools run by religious or if they are considered superior. The other state schools, many of which are overcrowded and managed bureaucracy, are the children of uniform mass and they should be happy and grateful for the fact that they are allowed to go to school, apparently for free.
At this point it is necessary to highlight the main features that characterize the school was that the sons and daughters of ordinary people (but not only them) should attend.
The characteristics of the school was ( ^ )
A confirmation about the actual functions of the school you have been looking at the traits that today, in many cases, the fundamental feature, namely:
- general mandatory funding (taxes). The state school is a service provided under monopolistic practices must be considered which is funded by all, not only without distinction between those who have or not have children but most importantly, not taking into account if the taxpayer is taxed in favor of the state school or refuses to use it, investing time and resources in alternative educational experiences for his children (teaching at home, community schools, use of experts, special courses, purchase of educational materials, etc.)..
- general compulsory attendance (up to a certain age). School attendance is mandatory required by law (teaching in the family is only allowed in some countries) and the boys are forced to go to school otherwise the state intervenes with the police and the judiciary.
- regimentation of teachers (teacher training and teaching practices). Teachers are being trained under the supervision of the state and must convey concepts that are provided in a curriculum prepared by the state, using manual approved by the state, mostly along Conventional techniques of instruction (usually academic lessons) approved by the state.
- regimentation of students. Students are divided according to their chronological age (their mental capacities or personal interests are not in any way taken into account), and in some cases, by sex, and are placed in groups of varying sizes (depending on the amount resources available) under the control and direction of one or more teachers. All students are required to closely monitor, store and repeat the knowledge transmitted to them by teachers, without calling into question either the form or content of the educational process.
- Learning-based national . The ideas forwarded refer mainly inparticular in the case of the human sciences, culture and national elite dominant elites consider what this worthy of being absorbed and passed on. The creativity and cosmopolitanism are not, in general, the school's educational agenda of the state.
- CERIF statutory qualifications . If students have shown satisfactorily docile and sufficiently capable in their effort of attention, memorization and repetition of what has been presented to them, they can expect to receive a legal document (a certificate) that (hopefully) will open their many carriere nello stato o in settori collegati allo stato o in professioni regolate dallo stato. Quel pezzo di carta è una chiave magica che, purtroppo, non sempre riflette ciò che le persone sono davvero capaci di fare. In tal caso esse impareranno sul lavoro, nel corso delle loro attività professionali. A questo proposito, "l'economista americano, Professor George J. Stigler, che ha calcolato il tipo di istruzione che porta ad un incremento nel potere di contrattazione salariale dell'individuo, è giunto alla conclusione che fino ai due terzi di tale capacità era acquisita non nel college o a scuola ma attraverso l'esperienza e il tirocinio all'interno della fabbrica o dell'ufficio." (1965, E.G.West, Education and the State. A study in political economy). If it is still the case, then it is as if we returned to the starting point when learning took place through the experiences of life. The only difference from the past, and is not something to be proud of, is now a huge amount of personal time and social resources are squandered without valid reason and with no results worth mentioning.
fact. if there is anything certain is that the schooling was absorbs enormous resources, which are directed mainly towards the employees to the system. It is therefore necessary to consider briefly the professionals upon which the state school.
I protagonisti della scuola di stato ( ^ )
Quando l'educazione era un portato delle esperienze di vita, tutti coloro che, all'interno o all'esterno della famiglia, erano dotati di particolari capacità diventavano insegnanti (diffusori di conoscenze) in maniera informale.
Successivamente, individui letterati, appartenenti soprattutto a congregazioni religiose, dedicarono i loro sforzi all'insegnamento in maniera strutturata, mettendosi al servizio dei poveri o diventanto precettori di ricche famiglie.
Con la nascita dell'idea della scuola moderna, signore appartenenti a famiglie aristocratiche si impegnarono in istituzioni educational charity. At the same time, individuals, often of humble origins, who had learned to read and write, began to offer their educational services, becoming the first of what will be the core group of trainers, they were paid by parents and were under the watchful eye the local community or of the clergy from which they were employed.
The financial uncertainties of the profession at the mercy of parents and local groups, and dependence on the Church, which controlled most of the educational institutions are the main reasons why, over time an increasingly large number of teachers promoted and agreed to willingly interventom the state in education. For them this meant:
- a regular remuneration paid by the state through the tax levy instead of the person concerned to collect contributions from individual parents.
- a master away form the Ministry of Education which has its headquarters in the capital, instead of continuous control exercised locally by parents and the whole community.
- a curriculum which would remove the latest part of a pedantic religiosity, replacing it with more concrete themes.
- a better account of staff at the local community and society as a whole as educational representatives of a rising power (the nation state) that had been assigned a mission (the education / nationalization of the younger generation).
It's no wonder that teachers had a strong personal interest in the dissemination of state school and becoming a kind of educational agents of the state. One justification was that, in doing so, they are released, in many cases by the suffocating protection of the Church. What was not revealed was that, in exchange for economic security, they were laying in a different protection, the state, which became, over time, not less oppressive and demeaning. From that moment on they became the spokesman for the power transmission belt ideology statesman which is made of a mixture of welfare and corrupter of heavy-handed authoritarianism.
In this regard it is noteworthy that teachers in state schools are members of a category that includes many who were and are the instigators and propagators of the direct role of the state personified by their pupils as concentration camp guards, torturers, assassins under the orders of the state. In the words of a contemporary historian, "the room for the torture and concentration camp just completed the work that the school had started." (1999, Martin van Creveld, The Rise and Decline of the State). And the bureaucratic superstructure autoriataria of the state still holds today especially the atteraverso lavoro di propaganda e di manipolazione (consapevole o no) di gran parte degli inseganti delle scuole di stato.
Altre categorie di persone che hanno accettato volentieri il sorgere e il diffondersi della scuola di stato sono stati tutti coloro che hanno trovato una occupazione in ruoli burocratici come ispettori scolastici o amministratori sia nell'ambito delle scuole che all'interno di un gigantesco apparato che, dal centro, dovrebbe guidare e modellare la macchina educativa.
Attualmente, in alcuni stati, il Ministero dell'istruzione rappresenta il massimo fornitore di impieghi del paese, per cui l'ammontare di interessi acquisiti che lavorano per la perpetuazione del sistema è enorme anche quando e laddove i risultati sono scarsi o del tutto irrisori compared with the amount of resources used.
Let us therefore briefly examine those who were and those who are at present the results of the Tax-diffusion of state school.
The effects of state school ( ^ )
The school was compulsory has received at least three negative results that were not foreseen by many of those who were in favor of state intervention in education:
- devalued parents . Based on the assumptions that underlie the intervention of the state, school attendance must be imposed on parents or they had no interest in their children. This generalization without foundation, even if true in reference to a small number of parents, has been applied to all the parents with the result of eliminating their be actively responsible for the education of their children, attibuendo this task to a group professionals and bureaucrats who take almost all decisions in this regard. It's no wonder that parents are now really irrelevant or marginal figures such as teaching, no longer a source of values \u200b\u200band of simple stimuli, but stewards of money for their children.
- devalued learning . Un'altra premessa di base del modello della scuola statale obbligatoria consiste nel ritenere che l'apprendimento debba essere imposto ai ragazzi altrimenti essi non mostrerebbero alcun interesse e curiosità e rimarrebbero per sempre pigri e ignoranti. Questa è, ancora una volta, una generalizzazione priva di fondamenta, non presa nemmeno in considerazione dalla quasi totalità dei pedagogisti; in maniera paradossale, essa è valida solo laddove la motivazione personale ad apprendere è stata eliminata e rimpiazzata dalla costrizione. In tal caso, come in tutti i casi in cui si introduce la coercizione, qualsiasi esperienza che si suppone educativa perde del tutto il suo potere di attrazione e diventa una fatica noiosa da evitare per quanto possibile. Creative learning gives way to a storage forced endured just to get the necessary piece of paper called a diploma.
- devalued activity. The basic approach of the state school is to bring together children in a specific place (the classroom within the school building) where someone has been tasked to present some concepts. In this way, the close connection (if not the union) between learning and doing is completely broken. Learning appears as something completely detached from action, a long period of time spent outside of real life resumes its course once the school term. This model comes from a vision of a society divided between manual work and intellectual activity that gives rise to class division between rulers and ruled. And the state school, through its mode of operation, perpetuates this social division.
In general, the school has been failed and still fails in what many naively believe to be its essential function, namely to develop and promote a knowledge that will allow to address new realities. This is not possible because the school was privileged:
- the repetition of the past instead of building the future;
- the transmission of knowledge-based exploration of a science than national universal
- the study of theories than the conventional testing of original hypotheses.
The results in terms of social and psychological impact of all this appear very clearly if we examine only the ideas cultivated and transmitted in the course of most of the twentieth century, namely:
- nationalism, chauvinism and the abandonment of cosmopolitanism;
- imperialism, militarism and contempt of pacifism.
think that the school status has nothing to do with what it means to be mentally and morally blind, a zombie degenerate with a degree in idiocy.
Based on these results, the state school can be counted, much appropriately, including state institutions such as the total prison, psychiatric hospital, the barracks, sharing with them, albeit in more nuanced and subtle features:
- prison (prison)
- regimentation (barracks )
- repression (psychiatric hospital).
The state school is the perfect example of a mass society in which even the education process becomes a uniform pre-packaged and the students are like machines on the assembly line. Or, to give a more appropriate image of the entire sequence, the boys are like chickens in cages, force fed to produce animals suitable for the pan of the state bureaucracy, in the role of docile workers and alienated consumers.
Beyond that, the schools have also become centers of anger, violence, illiteracy and apathy to the point where not only education does not take place but miseducation is spreading rapidly and widely, with a huge waste of resources, especially human resources.
Many had expected the adverse effects from the outset that the State assumed control of education. So the objections to the monopoly public school have been numerous, especially by those who grew up in an environment and in a time when the weight of the state was reduced (XIX century); further objections have reappeared in the second metà del secolo XX e stanno crescendo a valanga all'inizio del secolo XXI.
Le obiezioni alla scuola di stato ( ^ )
Le obiezioni all'intervento dello stato nell'educazione sono emerse durante il XIX secolo sia in Inghilterra che in Francia.
Pensatori come John Stuart Mill misero in guardia, non sempre in maniera coerente, riguardo ai rischi connessi all'affidare l'educazioni nelle mani dello stato. Nel saggio "On Liberty" (1859) egli scrisse: "Una educazione generale statale rappresenta soltanto uno stratagemma per formare le persone una uguale all'altra" e "nella far as this is accomplished effectively and successfully, it generates a despotism over the mind that leads to natural tendency to despotism on individuals. "[" A general State education is a mere contrivance for molding people to be Exactly like One Another "and" in Proportion as it is efficient and successful, it establishes a despotism over the mind, leading by natural tendency to one over the body. "]
In" Principles of Political Economy "(1848) stated in Mill very peremptory manner that "is not acceptable that a government has, by law or in fact, a total control on the education of people. Being in possession of such examinations, and practical exercises, equivalent to a situation of despotism. A government that can form the opinions and sentiments of the people from their youth onwards, they can do what he wants. "[" It is not endurable That Should a government, de jure or de facto Either Have a complete control over the education of the people. To Possess Such a control, and Actually exert it, is to be dispotic. A government Which can mold the opinions and sentiments of the people from Their youth upwards, can do whatever it pleases with Them. "]
similar objections were expressed by Karl Marx when, criticizing the program of the German Social Democratic Party (Program Gotha) wrote: "The education of the people by the state is a bee that is criticized in a extremely strong. "" The Government and the Church should be both excluded from exercising any influence on the school. "(1875, Karl Marx)
In France, Frederic Bastiat, among others, opposed to the principle of education was declared that: "The state, or more precisely the party, faction, sect, the politician who takes hold in a given time, even in a legal manner, the power to influence the government, can give direction to teaching that it wants, and shape at will through all minds the only mechanism of diplomas. "[" L'Etat, ou pour mieux say the parties, the faction, the sect, here was filled momentanément l'homme, et même très légalement de l'influence gouvernementale, peut donner à l'enseignement la direction qui lui plaît, et façonner à son gré tous les intelligences par le seul mécanisme des grades." (1850, Baccalauréat et socialisme)
In Italia, Piero Gobetti, capovolgendo la logica viziata di coloro che vogliono imporre a tutti una educazione laica sotto il controllo dello stato scrisse che: "Solo uno stato teocratico può rivendicare il diritto del monopolio scolastico." (1924, La Rivoluzione Liberale)
Altri rilievi critici sono state indirizzati all'irregimentazione e alla natura costrittiva della pratica educativa nelle scuole, nelle quali i ragazzi sono trattati come barili vuoti che devono essere riempiti di notions that they like it or not.
Despite all this, the respect he inspired, at least in the past, the professional teacher, supported by the Church or, in more recent times, the state has meant that the objections were less incisive and able to make a change in educational practices. The only remaining option was to leave school if this is possible and practicable.
One of the most famous cases of refusal of the school has to do with in 1854 a seven year old boy named Thomas Alva Edison. After an animated discussion with the school's director, disapproving of the rigid teaching methods, her mother thought it appropriate to educate the son home. Thanks to this courageous decision, the head of a small Edison was saved from conformity and one of the most brilliant minds of all time was allowed to flourish.
not so fortunate with regard to school attendance was another genius like Albert Einstein, who, looking back with the memories of her past school, wrote the following words: "One had to store all those notions in their brain, which he would or no. This coercion had such a deterring effect that, after passing the final exam, for a whole year I experienced a rejection in addressing any problems of scientific nature. "
If this is the effect that the school has had a curious mind and brilliant like that of Einstein, we should be terrified by the thought of what it has on students less brilliant. Unfortunately, there are many good guys and who are incapable of accommodating implement the resolution of Mark Twain who said "I never allowed the school interfere with my education" ["I Never Let Schooling Interfere with My Education"] and that they are marked forever by a distaste even against real learning experience.
For many critics of school educational attainment appeared more daunting to the point that, since the year 1960, a series of books were published with titles such as very enlightening "The compulsory miseducation" ["Compulsory Miseducation"] (1962, Paul Goodman) o "Come fallire l'educazione dei bambini" ["How Children Fail"] (1964, John Holt).
A questi saggi sono seguiti, all'inizio degli anni 1970, testi ancora più radicali che sostenevano la necessità di mettere la parola fine alla scuola. I loro titoli non erano meno espliciti: "La scuola è morta" ["School Is Dead" ] (1971, Everett Reimer) e "Descolarizzare la società" ["Deschooling society"] (1971, Ivan Illich).
Le analisi e le diagnosi erano tutte molto simili: l'apprendimento non può essere basato sulla costrizione e sull'acquisizione e ripetizione mnemonica, ma si sviluppa attraverso la libertà dell'individuo e la curiosità naturalmente insita in lui che lo porta ad osservare e scoprire e quindi a imparare.
Sulla base di queste idee e come reazione al fallimento del sistema scolare dominato dallo stato, nuove esperienze sono apparse soprattutto nel corso degli anni 1980 e 1990 e si stanno moltiplicando all'inizio del XXI secolo.
Le alternative alla scuola di stato ( ^ )
Durante la fase di dominio della scuola di stato e anche all'interno del settore scolastico statale, alcune esperienze hanno avuto luogo che si pongono in posizione di contrasto con i dettami imposti dal centro.
Mentre la scuola di stato era/è
- incentrata sull'insegnante
- basata su sussidiari e lezioni cattedratiche
- obbligatoria e irregimentata
l'educazione progressista era/è
- incentrata sul discente (Maria Montessori)
- focalizzata sull'apprendimento attraverso le attività (John Dewey)
- libera dall'obbligo e dall'irregimentazione (A. S. Neill e l'esperienza di Summerhill).
Ma queste esperienze sono state o isole in un mare di conformismo e di acquiescenza alle direttive statali o una spruzzata di novità nell'ambito di un approccio formulato in termini generalmente burocratici.
Le inadequatezze del sistema scolastico statale sono dunque rimaste e sono state aggravate by a dynamic social and technological innovation that is making the school appear more insignificant and far from the real needs of those who want to learn.
Currently, many feel the need to move from a small number of test cases in a growing variety of experiences. And this is what is happening in some parts of the world.
There are three ideas that, at the same time, begin to be accepted by an increasing number of individuals and are pushing for the implementation of alternatives to the present situation:
- the end of the school's identification with the state school . The decline of state schools in terms of teaching, made even more visible and acute episodes of violence and bad behavior, has stimulated some individuals and groups to intervene entering or expanding their presence in education. In the United States end the criminalization of the state made to learning at home (homeschooling) has allowed the flourishing of many experiences in which parents have assumed direct responsibility in the upbringing of their children. The number of students learning at home in the United States rose from 350,000 in 1990 to 1 million and 300 thousand in 1998.
Another area of \u200b\u200bgrowth in non-state schools is represented by schools sponsored by religious institutions that seek to convey a strong moral teaching. This type of schools are chosen by those who attribute a importanza speciale all'educazione etica e alla trasmissione di alcuni valori basilari. Abbiamo quindi scuole Protestanti, Cattoliche, Ebree, Islamiche, Quacchere, Mennonite e Amish, per citare le più note. (1997, Ronald E. Koetzsch, The Parent's Guide to Alternatives in Education)
Accanto alle scuole di impronta religiosa, in molti paesi sono sempre esistite scuole non statali (chiamate in Inghilterra "public schools" e altrove "scuole private") promosse da individui e gruppi e finanziate attraverso le rette pagate dai genitori e contributi volontari. Nella fase attuale, la crisi finanziaria dello stato che è incapace di coprire con la sua presenza tutti i settori sociali, fa sì che queste iniziative siano ancora più necessarie. To cite just one case in Poland after the fall of communism was to have opened nearly 300 new private universities, attended by half the current population of university students.
All these are just examples among others that show that the mental association that operates by agreement between the state and school as a necessary and indispensable elements is becoming increasingly less valid.
- the end of the identification of learning with schooling . In addition to new schools, there are also educational experiences designed to measure the individual and the individual learning tools that can be used for a process of self-teaching. Hypertext in the computer courses introduce the students a un numero crescente di temi di interesse conoscitivo e consentono di effettuare percorsi di studio personalizzati, scegliendo il momento e il ritmo dell'apprendimento. In generale, l'elevata circolazione di informazioni e la quantità rilevante di risorse e di opportunità educative disponibili al di là della scuola, rendono l'ambiente stesso nella sua totalità un luogo di apprendimento e le scuole diventano solo uno tra i tanti centri (e nemmeno il più importante) che si occupano del conoscere.
- la fine della identificazione dell'apprendimento con uno specifico periodo della vita (gli anni di scuola) o con uno specifico luogo (l'edificio scolastico). L'apprendimento è, ed è always been, a process that lasts a lifetime. This is especially true now given the pace of technological and social change. The idea that the cognitive process is limited to the school year within the school building and the absorption of a curriculum imposed from the center and updated after many years, puts individuals into a situation of disadvantage. They become unable to cope with new situations, as human beings obsolete notions whose absorption has been imposed on them.
To remedy this situation, courses (short, long, remote, introductory, advanced, specialized, etc.). On almost every topic of interest, held by experts, are or should be available and affordable for everyone at any time during the life offered by a variety of new and old leaders (think tanks, local associations, manufacturing and distribution businesses, professionals and specialists, etc.).. This reality is, in most cases, very different from the formal school and is addressed to meet the specific needs and current student, and this is what, in the first and last instance, is the motivation to develop a genuine process education.
All these experiences lead to a new paradigm of learning beyond the school and especially beyond the state school. On this new educational paradigm is necessary to dwell a bit ' più a fondo.
Dalla scolarizzazione all'apprendimento ( ^ )
Il superamento concettuale delle tre identificazioni precedentemente messe in rilievo costituisce la premessa necessaria per liberare la mente da una serie di false idee che sono state trasmesse per generazioni.
La più errata di queste idee, diffusa dallo stato e non certamente dagli studiosi dell'educazione, è che l'apprendimento è una pena inevitabile che deve essere imposta come un obbligo, mentre è, in realtà, un'esperienza naturale e piacevole.
Quello che è davvero una pena è l'essere confinati in un'aula, per molte ore del giorno, per molti giorni dell'anno, e per molti anni durante quello che è il periodo più attivo della vita di un essere umano, per ascoltare ed assorbire esperienze di seconda mano e nozioni che devono essere memorizzate e ripetute e pappagallo in modo da superare un esame che permette di iniziare ad ascendere la scala sociale. Dal momento che molti genitori sono passati attraverso questo percorso forzato, essi sono stati preparati (vale a dire, manipolati) ad accettare che i loro figli compiano lo stesso penoso e noioso itinerario solo perché c'è (o si spera che ci sia) un premio alla fine della sofferenza: la sicurezza economica e le gratificazioni materiali.
Nei fatti, questa realtà is nothing but the revival of the old conception of the Church that had life on earth as punishment rewarded with eternal happiness after death. Under statism school years are a long preparation for a life of tension and tedium in order to achieve material wealth described as the real source of happiness.
Clearly this has nothing to do with learning. Certainly some of the concepts are useful to reach the minds of young people during a long period of forced confinement in school so poor but these results are certainly not sufficient to justify either the methods used or the amount of allocated resources. Learning is
something completely different from school today because his features are antithetical to it. In fact, a learning process is characterized by being:
- free unforced
- pleasant not painful
- creative non-repetitive
- motivated by the interests of the individual is not a direct outside
- spontaneous
not regimented - not mass-customized
- that lasts a lifetime is not limited in time
- common in space is not restricted in one place.
For these reasons, instead of devoting more energy and resources to the old school system, we should support projects and activities that promote:
- l'apprendimento autogestito (apprendimento come esplorazione personale)
- gli ambienti di apprendimento (apprendimento come esperienza sociale).
L'apprendimento autogestito ( ^ )
L'aspetto centrale dell'apprendimento risiede nel fatto che esso è una esplorazione personale che porta ad uno sviluppo personale. Per questo motivo l'apprendimento è essenzialmente autogestito dalla persona e caratterizzato dalla seguente dinamica:
- Motivazione personale . L'apprendimento è iniziato dall'individuo that it is in the way of satisfying some natural inclinations. Curiosity and a desire for discovery activities represent basic traits of all human beings.
- Personal Commitment. Curiosity and the desire to bring discoveries necessarily the individual to engage in active personally rich of satisfactions and meanings that become learning experiences. Living and Learning represent a unique situation.
- -development. What emerges from the motivation and commitment is, in all probability, the development of new personal qualities (attitudes, skills, views, etc...) This fact stimulates and motivates the individual to engage in further learning experiences in an endless process in which the person can always find more satisfaction and fulfillment as it proceeds in its exploration of the world.
This dynamic learning is spontaneous and self-generating and takes place within a framework characterized by:
- primary quality: the individual becomes capable of learning to learn;
- place / time: there are no physical boundaries or limits temporal learning;
- arguments: there is no fragmentation or separation of fields of learning.
Since the learning process focused on the individual and his needs, special attention should be given to freedom on the following aspects:
- Themes learning. The term learning issues, reference is made to the content of the individual selected on the basis of their interests and needs. Different individuals will approach different issues that intersect and reinforce one another, all being characterized by the fact that significant, relevant and life of the individual.
- types of learning. The term refers to types of learning experiences selected by the individual to get in touch with the themes of learning. Different themes require different learning experiences that place emphasis on different qualities (eg. visual, motor, logic, etc..) through different routes of learning.
- learning styles. The term learning style refers to the learner and the way it deals with the learning experience. Individuals differ (motivation, interests, knowledge, etc..) Which are reflected in differences in their learning styles of individuals (eg, emphasis given to an intuitive approach than an analytical approach or vice versa) .
Overall, in order to meet all these aspects and all these requirements, an educational process based on deovrebbe:
- Individualization: learning is closely related to the needs, interests and motivations of the person;
- Customizing : the learner selects the export route, the environment and pace that is most suitable ;
- Integration: the materials being explored not only bind to one another but also integrate with the individual's previous knowledge base and broaden / deepen.
A curriculum, where it exists as a sequence of learning is dictated / shaped by the themes, types and styles of learning that are closely related to the personality of the individual; can not be imposed from above uniformly by a bureaucratic power. As pointed out by psychologist Carl Rogers' learning set in motion by the individual and that involves his whole being - emotions as well as the intellect - is what produces results more lasting and deeper. " ["Self-initiated learning Which Involves the whole person of the learner - feelings as well as intellect - is The Most lasting and pervasive."] (1969, Carl Rogers, Freedom to Learn).
learning, although it is an experience and a personal development takes place through a continuous series and a dense network of interactions, and these require the existence of learning environments.
learning environments ( ^ )
learning environments are made up of community (individuals interconnected), space (resource centers) and activities (significant experience) through which every human can satisfy the innate desire to learn. Within each learning environments, on different occasions, give and receive according to the specific knowledge that the person has mastered.
The higher the quality and the wider the variety of educational environments, the more learning opportunities. Be a part (As a promoter and user) of a network of learning environments providing the conditions for a valid cognitive exponential multiplication of the knowledge base of everyone involved.
personal and interpersonal learning becomes what it was and what should have been more, namely a commitment and a stake in
- Troubleshooting (Research)
- Design Solutions (Design)
- Implementation of decisions (Planning)
about the total experience of life, in which each stage is contained in the other.
The new educational paradigm (new compared to current conventional practices of most state schools) tends to ensure that every human being can become a problem solver and an actuator solutions instead of being a sort of tape recorder that repeats the past in the present and future fixed.
the beginning of the twenty-first century, the majority of schools (state or certified by the state) still produce a considerable number of people dissatisfied, clones of a social world in decay, docile machines ready to climb the social or people aggressive and angry, disgusted from what was presented as their education: regimentation, standardization, subordination, in a word, pure and simple sale.
Individuals and communities have in their hands ripendere the learning process by removing the monopolistic role of the state supported by a compulsory tax, a compulsory education, and a whole raft of diplomas and degrees as deadliest bait that will pave the way towards money and power.
The separation between state and education is needed now as it was necessary in his time the separation between state and religion. This had the effect of putting an end to the wars of religion and introduced tolerance in religious matters, the other, and that is the separation between state and education, could put an end to wars, national / tribal and certainly would cease political struggles, introducing not only tolerance but also wisdom.
We should replace the state schools with a set sparkling experiments and experiences. There are no limits to learning and there should be limits to what can be done in the field of learning.
The state school, namely the state manipulation of the masses, has no future as a mass society of which the school is the worst product. We focus, again and really started learning and managed by the person.
Link: http://www.polyarchy.org/paradigm/italiano/scolarizzazione.html
search of happiness and freedom 
Valeria Traversi 
